History of the alphabet : From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The history of the alphabet is believed to have begun in Ancient Egypt, more than a millennium into the history of writing. The first consonantal alphabet found has emerged around 2000 BCE to represent the language of Semitic workers in Egypt (see Middle Bronze Age alphabets), and was at least influenced by the alphabetic principles of the Egyptian hieratic script. Nearly all alphabets in the world today either descend directly from this development or were inspired by its design.^[1]
The most widely used alphabet is the Latin alphabet.^[2] It derives from the Greek, the first true alphabet in that it consistently assigns letters to both consonants and vowels.^[3]The Greek alphabet in turn was derived from the Phoenician alphabet (it was an abjad - a system where each symbol usually stands for a consonant).

Contents 1 Pre-history 2 Predecessors 3 Consonantal alphabets 3.1 Semitic alphabet 3.2 Descendants of the Aramaic abjad 4 True alphabets 4.1 Greek alphabet 4.2 Latin alphabet 5 Letter names and sequence of some alphabets 6 Graphically independent alphabets 7 Alphabets in other media 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

Pre-history

Two scripts are well attested from before the end of the fourth millennium BCE: Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphs. Both were well known in the part of the Middle East that produced the first widely used alphabet, the Phoenician. There are signs that cuneiform was developing alphabetic properties in some of the languages it was adapted for, as was seen again later in the Old Persian cuneiform script, but it now appears these developments were a sideline and not ancestral to the alphabet.^{[citation needed]} The Byblos syllabary has suggestive graphic similarities to both hieratic Egyptian and to the Phoenician alphabet, but as it is undeciphered, little can be said about its role, if any, in the history of the alphabet.

Predecessors

By 2700 BCE the ancient Egyptians had developed a set of some 22 hieroglyphs to represent the individual consonants of their language, plus a 23rd that seems to have represented word-initial or word-final vowels. These glyphs were used as pronunciation guides for logograms, to write grammatical inflections, and, later, to transcribe loan words and foreign names. However, although alphabetic in nature, the system was not used for purely alphabetic writing except when transcribing foreign names. That is, while capable of being used as an alphabet, it was in fact nearly always used with a strong logographic component, presumably due to strong cultural attachment to the complex Egyptian script. A Semitic language is attested in Egyptian hieroglyphs from 2400 BCE, but glyphs have their Egyptian values and so were not ancestral to the alphabet.^{[clarification needed]} The first purely alphabetic script is thought to have been developed around 1850 BCE for Semitic workers in the Sinai but giving mostly Egyptian glyphs Semitic values. Over the next five centuries it spread north, and all subsequent alphabets around the world have either descended from it, or been inspired by one of its descendants, with the possible exception of the Meroitic alphabet, a 3rd century BCE adaptation of hieroglyphs in Nubia to the south of Egypt - though even here many scholars suspect the influence of that first alphabet.^{[citation needed]}

 Consonantal alphabets

Semitic alphabet

See also: Genealogy of scripts derived from Proto-Sinaitic

The Proto-Sinaitic script of Egypt has yet to be fully deciphered. However, it does appear to be alphabetic and to record the Canaanite language. The oldest examples are found as graffiti in the Sinai and date to perhaps 1850 BCE.

Reconstructed ancestral form
Phoenician									;
Possible acrophony	ʾalp ox	bet house	gaml throwstick	digg fish	haw, hll hurrah	waw hook	zen, ziqq handcuff	ḥet courtyard	ṭēt wheel	yad arm	kap hand	lamd goad	mem water	naḥš snake	samek fish	ʿen eye	piʾt bend	ṣad plant	qup monkey	raʾs head	šananuma bow	taw signature

Semitic alphabets
Phoenician (c.1050 – 200 BCE)
𐤀‎   𐤁‎   𐤂‎   𐤃‎   𐤄‎ 𐤅‎   𐤆‎   𐤇‎   𐤈‎   𐤉‎ 𐤊‎   𐤋‎   𐤌‎   𐤍‎   𐤎‎ 𐤏‎   𐤐‎   𐤑‎   𐤒‎   𐤓‎ 𐤔‎   𐤕‎ Semitic abjads · Genealogy
Hebrew (400 BCE – present)
א  ב  ג  ד  ה  ו ז  ח  ט  י  כך ל  מם  נן  ס  ע  פף צץ  ק  ר  ש  ת History · Transliteration Niqqud · Dagesh · Gematria Cantillation · Numeration
Syriac (200 BCE – present)
ܐ  ܒ  ܓ  ܕ  ܗ  ܘ ܙ  ܚ  ܛ  ܝ  ܟܟ  ܠ ܡܡ  ܢܢ  ܣ  ܥ  ܦ ܨ  ܩ  ܪ  ܫ  ܬ
Arabic (400 CE – present)
ا   ب   ت   ث   ج   ح خ   د   ذ   ر   ز   س ش   ص   ض   ط   ظ ع   غ   ف   ق   ك ل   م   ن   ه   و   ي History · Transliteration Diacritics · Hamza ء Numerals · Numeration
v · d · e

This Semitic script reallocated Egyptian hieroglyphs for consonantal values based on their Semitic translations.^[4] So, for example, the hieroglyph per ("house" in Egyptian) became bayt ("house" in Semitic).^[5] The script was used only sporadically, and retained its pictographic nature, for half a millennium, until adopted for governmental use in Canaan. The first Canaanite states to make extensive use of the alphabet were the Phoenician city-states and so later stages of the Canaanite script are called Phoenician. The Phoenician cities were maritime states at the center of a vast trade network and soon the Phoenician alphabet spread throughout the Mediterranean. Two variants of the Phoenician alphabet had major impacts on the history of writing: the Aramaic alphabet and the Greek alphabet. [1]

Descendants of the Aramaic abjad

Chart showing details of four alphabets' descent from Phoenician abjad, from left to right Latin, Greek, original Phoenician, Hebrew, Arabic.

The Phoenician and Aramaic alphabets, like their Egyptian prototype, represented only consonants, a system called an abjad. The Aramaic alphabet, which evolved from the Phoenician in the 7th century BCE as the official script of the Persian Empire, appears to be the ancestor of nearly all the modern alphabets of Asia:

• The modern Hebrew alphabet started out as a local variant of Imperial Aramaic. (The original Hebrew alphabet has been retained by the Samaritans.) ^[6][7]
• The Arabic alphabet descended from Aramaic via the Nabataean alphabet of what is now southern Jordan.
• The Syriac alphabet used after the 3rd century CE evolved, through Pahlavi and Sogdian, into the alphabets of northern Asia, such as Orkhon (probably), Uyghur, Mongolian, and Manchu.
• The Georgian alphabet is of uncertain provenance, but appears to be part of the Persian-Aramaic (or perhaps the Greek) family.
• The Aramaic alphabet is also the most likely ancestor of the Brahmic alphabets of the Indian subcontinent (see Brāhmī script), which spread to Tibet, Mongolia, Indochina, and the Malay archipelago along with the Hindu and Buddhist religions. (China and Japan, while absorbing Buddhism, were already literate and retained their logographic and syllabic scripts.)
• The Hangul alphabet was invented in Korea in the 15th century. Tradition holds that it was an autonomous invention; however, Gari Ledyard suggests that portions of its consonantal system may be based on half a dozen letters derived from Tibetan via the imperial Phagspa alphabet of the Yuan dynasty of China; Tibetan is a Brahmic script. Uniquely among the world's alphabets, the rest of the consonants are derived from this core as a featural system.^[8]

Western ←		Phoenician	→ Brahmic			→ Korean
Latin	Greek		Gujarati	Devanagari	Tibetan
A	Α		અ	अ	ཨ
B	В		બ	ब	བ	ㅂ
C, G	Г		ગ	ग	ག	ㄱ
D	Δ		ધ (ઢ)	ध (ढ)	-	ㄷ
E	Ε		હ	ह	ཧ	(ㅱ)
F, V	Ϝ, Υ		વ	व	ཝ
Z	Ζ		દ (ડ)	द (ड)	ད (ཌ)	ㅈ
H	Η		ઘ	घ	-
-	Θ		થ (ઠ)	थ (ठ)	ཐ (ཋ)
I, J	Ι		ય	य	ཡ
K	Κ		ક	क	ཀ	ㅋ
L	Λ		લ	ल	ལ	ㄹㄹ
M	Μ		મ	म	མ	ㅁ
N	Ν		ન	न	ན	ㄴ
-	Ξ		શ	श	ཤ
O	Ο		?
P	Π		પ, ફ	प, फ	པ, ཕ	ㅍ
-	Ϡ		સ	स	ས
Q	Ϙ		ખ	ख	ཁ
R	Ρ		ર	र	ར	ㄹ
S	Σ		ષ	ष	ཥ	ㅅ
T	Τ		ત (ટ)	त (ट)	ཏ (ཊ)	ㅌ

Table: The spread of the alphabet west (Greek, Latin) and east (Brahmic, Korean). Note that the exact correspondence between Phoenician (through Aramaic) to Brahmic is uncertain, especially for the sibilants and the letters in parentheses. The transmission of the alphabet from Tibetan (through Phagspa) to Hangul is also controversial.

True alphabets

 Greek alphabet

Adoption

Main article: History of the Greek alphabet

Greek alphabet on an ancient black figure vessel

By at least the 8th century BCE the Greeks borrowed the Phoenician alphabet and adapted it to their own language,^[9] creating in the process the first "true" alphabet, in which vowels were accorded equal status with consonants. According to Greek legends transmitted by Herodotus, the alphabet was brought from Phoenicia to Greece by Cadmos. The letters of the Greek alphabet are the same as those of the Phoenician alphabet, and both alphabets are arranged in the same order.^[9] However, whereas separate letters for vowels would have actually hindered the legibility of Egyptian, Phoenician, or Hebrew, their absence was problematic for Greek, where vowels played a much more important role.^[10] The Greeks used for vowels some of the Phoenician letters representing consonants which weren't used in Greek speech. All of the names of the letters of the Phoenician alphabet started with consonants, and these consonants were what the letters represented, something called the acrophonic principle.
However, several Phoenician consonants were absent in Greek, and thus several letter names came to be pronounced with initial vowels. Since the start of the name of a letter was expected to be the sound of the letter, in Greek these letters now stood for vowels.^{[citation needed]} For example, the Greeks had no glottal stop or h, so the Phoenician letters ’alep and he became Greek alpha and e (later renamed e psilon), and stood for the vowels /a/ and /e/ rather than the consonants /ʔ/ and /h/. As this fortunate development only provided for five or six (depending on dialect) of the twelve Greek vowels, the Greeks eventually created digraphs and other modifications, such as ei, ou, and o (which became omega), or in some cases simply ignored the deficiency, as in long a, i, u.^[11]
Several varieties of the Greek alphabet developed. One, known as Western Greek or Chalcidian, was used west of Athens and in southern Italy. The other variation, known as Eastern Greek, was used in Asia Minor (also called Asian Greece i.e. present-day aegean Turkey). The Athenians (c. 400 BC) adopted that latter variation and eventually the rest of the Greek-speaking world followed. After first writing right to left, the Greeks eventually chose to write from left to right, unlike the Phoenicians who wrote from right to left.

Descendants

Greek is in turn the source for all the modern scripts of Europe. The alphabet of the early western Greek dialects, where the letter eta remained an h, gave rise to the Old Italic and Roman alphabets. In the eastern Greek dialects, which did not have an /h/, eta stood for a vowel, and remains a vowel in modern Greek and all other alphabets derived from the eastern variants: Glagolitic, Cyrillic, Armenian, Gothic (which used both Greek and Roman letters), and perhaps Georgian.^[12]
Although this description presents the evolution of scripts in a linear fashion, this is a simplification. For example, the Manchu alphabet, descended from the abjads of West Asia, was also influenced by Korean hangul, which was either independent (the traditional view) or derived from the abugidas of South Asia. Georgian apparently derives from the Aramaic family, but was strongly influenced in its conception by Greek. The Greek alphabet, itself ultimately a derivative of hieroglyphs through that first Semitic alphabet, later adopted an additional half dozen demotic hieroglyphs when it was used to write Coptic Egyptian. Then there is Cree syllabics (an abugida), which appears to be a fusion of Devanagari and Pitman shorthand developed by the missionary James Evans; the latter may be an independent invention, but likely has its ultimate origins in cursive Latin script.^{[citation needed]}

Latin alphabet

Main article: History of the Latin alphabet

Latin alphabet world distribution. The dark green areas shows the countries where this alphabet is the sole main script. The light green shows the countries where the alphabet co-exists with other scripts.

A tribe known as the Latins, who became known as the Romans, also lived in the Italian peninsula like the Western Greeks. From the Etruscans, a tribe living in the first millennium BCE in central Italy, and the Western Greeks, the Latins adopted writing in about the fifth century. In adopted writing from these two groups, the Latins dropped four characters from the Western Greek alphabet. They also adapted the Etruscan letter F, pronounced 'w,' giving it the 'f' sound, and the Etruscan S, which had three zigzag lines, was curved to make the modern S. To represent the G sound in Greek and the K sound in Etruscan, the Gamma was used. These changes produced the modern alphabet without the letters G, J, U, W, Y, and Z, as well as some other differences.
C, K, and Q in the Roman alphabet could all be used to write both the /k/ and /g/ sounds; the Romans soon modified the letter C to make G, inserted it in seventh place, where Z had been, to maintain the gematria (the numerical sequence of the alphabet). Over the few centuries after Alexander the Great conquered the Eastern Mediterranean and other areas in the third century BCE, the Romans began to borrow Greek words, so they had to adapt their alphabet again in order to write these words. From the Eastern Greek alphabet, they borrowed Y and Z, which were added to the end of the alphabet because the only time they were used was to write Greek words.
The Anglo-Saxons began using Roman letters to write Old English as they converted to Christianity, following Augustine of Canterbury's mission to Britain in the sixth century. Because the Runic wen, which was first used to represent the sound 'w' and looked like a p that is narrow and triangular, was easy to confuse with an actual p, the 'w' sound began to be written using a double u. Because the u at the time looked like a v, the double u looked like two v's, W was placed in the alphabet by V. U developed when people began to use the rounded U when they meant the vowel u and the pointed V when the meant the consonant V. J began as a variation of I, in which a long tail was added to the final I when there were several in a row. People began to use the J for the consonant and the I for the vowel by the fifteenth century, and it was fully accepted in the mid-seventeenth century.

[edit] Letter names and sequence of some alphabets

The order of the letters of the alphabet is attested from the fourteenth century BCE, in a place called Ugarit located on Syria’s northern coast.^[13] Tablets found there bear over one thousand cuneiform signs, but these signs are not Babylonian and there are only thirty distinct characters. About twelve of the tablets have the signs set out in alphabetic order. There are two orders found, one of which is nearly identical to the order used for Hebrew, Greek and Latin, and a second order very similar to that used for Ethiopian.^[14]
It is not known how many letters the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet had nor what their alphabetic order was. Among its descendants, the Ugaritic alphabet had 27 consonants, the South Arabian alphabets had 29, and the Phoenician alphabet 22. These scripts were arranged in two orders, an ABGDE order in Phoenician and an HMĦLQ order in the south; Ugaritic preserved both orders. Both sequences proved remarkably stable among the descendants of these scripts.
The letter names proved stable among the many descendants of Phoenician, including Samaritan, Aramaic, Syriac, Hebrew, and Greek alphabet. However, they were abandoned in Arabic and Latin. The letter sequence continued more or less intact into Latin, Armenian, Gothic, and Cyrillic, but was abandoned in Brahmi, Runic, and Arabic, although a traditional abjadi order remains or was re-introduced as an alternative in the latter.
The table is a schematic of the Phoenician alphabet and its descendants.

nr.	Reconstruction	IPA	value	Ugaritic	Phoenician	Hebrew	Arabic	Greek	Latin	Cyrillic	Runic
1	alpu "ox"	/ʔ/	1	𐎀 ʔalpa	ʔālep	א	ﺍ	Α	A	А	ᚨ[citation needed]
2	baytu "house"	/b/	2	𐎁 beta	bēt	ב	ﺏ	Β	B	В, Б	ᛒ
3	gamlu "throwstick"	/ɡ/	3	𐎂 gamla	gīmel	ג	ﺝ	Γ	C, G	Г	ᚲ
4	daltu "door" / diggu "fish"	/d/	4	𐎄 delta	dālet	ד	ﺩ	Δ	D	Д
5	haw "window" / hallu "jubilation"	/h/	5	𐎅 ho	hē	ה	هـ	Ε	E	Е, Є
6	wāwu "hook"	/β/	6	𐎆 wo	wāw	ו	و	Ϝ, Υ	F, V, Y	У	ᚢ
7	zaynu "weapon" / ziqqu "manacle"	/z/	7	𐎇 zeta	zayin	ז	ز	Ζ	Z	З
8	ḥaytu "thread" / "fence"?	/ħ/ / /x/	8	𐎈 ḥota	ḥēt	ח	ح	Η	H	И	ᚺ
9	ṭaytu "wheel"	/tˤ/	9	𐎉 ṭeta	ṭēt	ט	ط	Θ		Ѳ
10	yadu "arm"	/j/	10	𐎊 yoda	yōd	י	ي	Ι	I	І	ᛁ
11	kapu "hand"	/k/	20	𐎋 kapa	kap	כ ך	ك	Κ	K	К
12	lamdu "goad"	/l/	30	𐎍 lamda	lāmed	ל	ل	Λ	L	Л	ᛚ
13	mayim "waters"	/m/	40	𐎎 mem	mēm	מ ם	م	Μ	M	М
14	naḥšu "snake" / nunu "fish"	/n/	50	𐎐 nuna	nun	נ ן	ن	Ν	N	Н
15	samku "support" / "fish" ?	/s/	60	𐎒 samka	sāmek	ס	-	Ξ, (Χ)	(X)	Ѯ, (Х)
16	ʕaynu "eye"	/ʕ/	70	𐎓 ʕena	ʻayin	ע	ع	Ο	O	О
17	pu "mouth" / piʔtu "corner"	/p/	80	𐎔 pu	pē	פ ף	ف	Π	P	П
18	ṣadu "plant"	/sˤ/	90	𐎕 ṣade	ṣādē	צ ץ	ص	Ϻ, (Ϡ)		Ц, Ч
19	qupu "cord"?	/kˤ/	100	𐎖 qopa	qōph	ק	ق	Ϙ	Q	Ҁ
20	raʔsu "head"	/r/ / /ɾ/	200	𐎗 raʔša	rēš	ר	ر	Ρ	R	Р	ᚱ
21	šinnu "tooth" / šimš "sun"	/ʃ/	300	𐎌 šina	šin	ש	س	Σ	S	С, Ш	ᛊ
22	tawu "mark"	/t/	400	𐎚 to	tāw	ת	ت	Τ	T	Т	ᛏ

These 22 consonants account for the phonology of Northwest Semitic. Of the reconstructed Proto-Semitic consonants, seven are missing: the interdental fricatives ḏ, ṯ, ṱ, the voiceless lateral fricatives ś, ṣ́, the voiced uvular fricative ġ, and the distinction between uvular and pharyngeal voiceless fricatives ḫ, ḥ, in Canaanite merged in ḥet. The six variant letters added in the Arabic alphabet account for these (except for ś, which survives as a separate phoneme in Ge'ez ሠ): ḏ > ḏāl; ṯ > ṯāʼ; ṱ > ḍād; ġ > ġayn; ṣ́ > ẓāʼ; ḫ > ḫāʼ (but note that this reconstruction of 29 Proto-Semitic consonants is heavily informed by Arabic; see Proto-Semitic for details).^{[citation needed]}

Graphically independent alphabets

The only modern national alphabet that has not been graphically traced back to the Canaanite alphabet is the Maldivian script, which is unique in that, although it is clearly modeled after Arabic and perhaps other existing alphabets, it derives its letter forms from numerals. The Osmanya alphabet devised for Somali in the 1920s was co-official in Somalia with the Latin alphabet until 1972, and the forms of its consonants appear to be complete innovations.
Among alphabets that are not used as national scripts today, a few are clearly independent in their letter forms. The Zhuyin phonetic alphabet derives from Chinese characters. The Santali alphabet of eastern India appears to be based on traditional symbols such as "danger" and "meeting place", as well as pictographs invented by its creator. (The names of the Santali letters are related to the sound they represent through the acrophonic principle, as in the original alphabet, but it is the final consonant or vowel of the name that the letter represents: le "swelling" represents e, while en "thresh grain" represents n.)
In early medieval Ireland, Ogham consisted of tally marks, and the monumental inscriptions of the Old Persian Empire were written in an essentially alphabetic cuneiform script whose letter forms seem to have been created for the occasion.

Alphabets in other media

Changes to a new writing medium sometimes caused a break in graphical form, or make the relationship difficult to trace. It is not immediately obvious that the cuneiform Ugaritic alphabet derives from a prototypical Semitic abjad, for example, although this appears to be the case. And while manual alphabets are a direct continuation of the local written alphabet (both the British two-handed and the French/American one-handed alphabets retain the forms of the Latin alphabet, as the Indian manual alphabet does Devanagari, and the Korean does Hangul), Braille, semaphore, maritime signal flags, and the Morse codes are essentially arbitrary geometric forms. The shapes of the English Braille and semaphore letters, for example, are derived from the alphabetic order of the Latin alphabet, but not from the graphic forms of the letters themselves. Modern shorthand also appears to be graphically unrelated. If it derives from the Latin alphabet, the connection has been lost to history.^{[citation needed]}

 See also

• Genealogy of scripts derived from Proto-Sinaitic
• History of writing
• List of inventors of writing systems
• List of languages by first written accounts
• History of the Arabic alphabet
• History of the Latin alphabet
• History of the Hebrew alphabet
• History of the Greek alphabet
• Runic alphabet

The Northwest Semitic abjad
ʾ	b	g	d	h	w	z	ḥ	ṭ	y	k	l	m	n	s	ʿ	p	ṣ	q	r	š	t
1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	20	30	40	50	60	70	80	90	100	200	300	400
history • Phoenician • Aramaic • Hebrew • Syriac • Arabic

 References

1. ^ Himelfarb, Elizabeth J. "First Alphabet Found in Egypt", Archaeology 53, Issue 1 (Jan./Feb. 2000): 21.
2. ^ Haarmann 2004, p. 96
3. ^ Coulmas, Florian (1996). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.. ISBN 0-631-21481-X. 
4. ^ Hooker, J. T., C. B. F. Walker, W. V. Davies, John Chadwick, John F. Healey, B. F. Cook, and Larissa Bonfante, (1990). Reading the Past: Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the Alphabet. Berkeley: University of California Press. pages 211-213.
5. ^ McCarter, P. Kyle. “The Early Diffusion of the Alphabet.” The Biblical Archaeologist 37, No. 3 (Sep., 1974): 54-68. page 57.
6. ^ Hooker, J. T., C. B. F. Walker, W. V. Davies, John Chadwick, John F. Healey, B. F. Cook, and Larissa Bonfante, (1990). Reading the Past: Ancient Writing from Cuneiform to the Alphabet, Berkeley: University of California Press. page 222.
7. ^ Robinson, Andrew, (1995). The Story of Writing: Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms, New York: Thames & Hudson Ltd. page 172.
8. ^ Ledyard, Gari K. The Korean Language Reform of 1446. Seoul: Shingu munhwasa, 1998.
9. ^ ^{a b} McCarter, P. Kyle. "The Early Diffusion of the Alphabet", The Biblical Archaeologist 37, No. 3 (Sep., 1974): 54-68. page 62.
10. ^ "there are languages for which an alphabet is not an ideal writing system. The Semitic abjads really do fit the structure of Hebrew, Aramaic, and Arabic very well, [more] than an alphabet would [...], since the spelling ensures that each root looks the same through its plethora of inflections and derivations." Peter Daniels, The World's Writing Systems, p. 27.
11. ^ Robinson, Andrew, (1995). The Story of Writing: Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms, New York: Thames & Hudson Ltd. page 170.
12. ^ Robinson, Andrew. The Story of Writing: Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms. New York: Thames & Hudson Ltd., 1995.
13. ^ Robinson, Andrew, (1995). The Story of Writing: Alphabets, Hieroglyphs & Pictograms, New York: Thames & Hudson Ltd. page 162.
14. ^ Millard, A.R. "The Infancy of the Alphabet", World Archaeology 17, No. 3, Early Writing Systems (Feb., 1986): 390-398. page 395.

Further reading

• Peter T. Daniels, William Bright (eds.), 1996. The World's Writing Systems, ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
• David Diringer, History of the Alphabet, 1977, ISBN 0-905418-12-3.
• Stephen R. Fischer, A History of Writing 2005 Reaktion Books CN 136481
• Haarmann, Harald (2004), Geschichte der Schrift (2nd ed.), München: C. H. Beck, ISBN 3-406-47998-7 
• Joel M. Hoffman, In the Beginning: A Short History of the Hebrew Language, 2004, ISBN 0-8147-3654-8.
• Robert K. Logan, The Alphabet Effect: The Impact of the Phonetic Alphabet on the Development of Western Civilization, New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1986.
• Millard, A. R. (1986), "The Infancy of the Alphabet", World Archaeology 17 (3): 390–398 
• Joseph Naveh, Early History of the Alphabet: an Introduction to West Semitic Epigraphy and Palaeography (Magnes Press - Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 1982)
• Barry B. Powell, Homer and Origin of the Greek Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
• B.L. Ullman, "The Origin and Development of the Alphabet," American Journal of Archaeology 31, No. 3 (Jul., 1927): 311-328.

[edit] External links

• Animated examples of how the English alphabet evolved by Robert Fradkin, University of Maryland
• The Greek alphabet on h2g2
• The Development of the Western Alphabet on h2g2
• Site by Micheal W. Palmer about the Greek alphabet
• "The Alphabet – its creation and development" on BBC Radio 4’s In Our Time featuring Eleanor Robson, Alan Millard, Rosalind Thomas